Beginnings: Mana Wahine
I have chosen to look at the representation of Māori women in New Zealand cinema.
There were two criteria I set down for myself when choosing the films that I wanted to study. 1) That the character identified as Māori. 2) That these female characters were an integral part of the story.
Using the term Mana Wahine:
Mana, described by Mason Durie as having “both worldly and ethereal meanings” (1998, p.2) has many meanings in Māori, including: authority, charisma, prestige, integrity, spiritual power and strength.
Wahine/wāhine at its simplest and most common understanding means woman/women, female, wife.
The combination of the two: Mana Wahine, is both potent and full of possibilities.
I have set out to explore the relationship between the various representations of Māori women in New Zealand cinema.
Using the following films Once Were Warriors, River Queen, Utu and Whale Rider as the basis of my research; I have also looked at some half a dozen other New Zealand films to give me a bigger picture of the type of characters our film makers are portraying.
I will use the term 'mana wahine'' throughout as an alternative and more defined term that in my mind invokes strong Māori women.
There were two criteria I set down for myself when choosing the films that I wanted to study. 1) That the character identified as Māori. 2) That these female characters were an integral part of the story.
Using the term Mana Wahine:
Mana, described by Mason Durie as having “both worldly and ethereal meanings” (1998, p.2) has many meanings in Māori, including: authority, charisma, prestige, integrity, spiritual power and strength.
Wahine/wāhine at its simplest and most common understanding means woman/women, female, wife.
The combination of the two: Mana Wahine, is both potent and full of possibilities.
I have set out to explore the relationship between the various representations of Māori women in New Zealand cinema.
Using the following films Once Were Warriors, River Queen, Utu and Whale Rider as the basis of my research; I have also looked at some half a dozen other New Zealand films to give me a bigger picture of the type of characters our film makers are portraying.
I will use the term 'mana wahine'' throughout as an alternative and more defined term that in my mind invokes strong Māori women.
Exploring the Relationships behind Mana Wahine
Hera Tawhai in Hinemoa, 1914.
Simmonds (2011) states that “Mana wahine, as an extension of Kaupapa Māori, is located in the wider indigenous struggle that has emerged because ‘we’ were unwilling to continue to try and ‘find’ ourselves in the words, texts and images of others.”(p.13)
I believe that mana wahine characters in our cinema, like that of our culture in Aotearoa/New Zealand, have been inherently influenced by the colonisation of New Zealand and in particular the adoption of Christianity.
Mikaere (2003) as cited by Simmonds (2011) "...the marginalisation of Māori women’s reproductive processes and practices had a direct impact on mana wahine wairua knowledges. ...with the introduction of Christianity...colonisers were quick to impose shame upon the reproductive roles of women, thus disregarding the power and tapu of whare tangata."
Before European settlers arrived on these shores, Māori society was not a staunchly patriarchal society like some believe it to be. Men and women each had their roles, but neither were superior to the other. Traditionally it was whakapapa or lineage that mattered in Māori society and who and where you were descended from was and continues to be a unique and valued aspect of Māori culture. But with Christianity came patriarchy and the roles of women were swiftly altered.
I believe that mana wahine characters in our cinema, like that of our culture in Aotearoa/New Zealand, have been inherently influenced by the colonisation of New Zealand and in particular the adoption of Christianity.
Mikaere (2003) as cited by Simmonds (2011) "...the marginalisation of Māori women’s reproductive processes and practices had a direct impact on mana wahine wairua knowledges. ...with the introduction of Christianity...colonisers were quick to impose shame upon the reproductive roles of women, thus disregarding the power and tapu of whare tangata."
Before European settlers arrived on these shores, Māori society was not a staunchly patriarchal society like some believe it to be. Men and women each had their roles, but neither were superior to the other. Traditionally it was whakapapa or lineage that mattered in Māori society and who and where you were descended from was and continues to be a unique and valued aspect of Māori culture. But with Christianity came patriarchy and the roles of women were swiftly altered.
Vanessa Rare in Ruby and Rata.
“Historically, our difference(s) has been defined for us, usually by non-Māori men but also by others, and has been defined predominantly in negative terms. That is, that Māori were/are different, and therefore somehow lacking, because they were/are ‘not white’...Mana wahine, as art, as theory, as method, and as practice, recognises and provides for this in-betweeness and enables the exploration of diverse Māori realities from a position of power…” (Simmonds, 2011, p.13)
Simmonds (2011) further suggests that “the distinguishing features of mana wahine...locates it firmly in the wider social and political fabric of New Zealand. Colonisation has attempted to disrupt the balance between mana wahine, mana whenua, mana whānau, and mana atua. Mana wahine is but one space within which we can critically analyse the impact of colonisation on all of these institutions – there are many others.” (p.14)
Johnston & Pihama (1998) as cited by Simmonds (2011) "Christian missionary discourses ascribed the cultural mores of European women to Māori women from very early on and the effects on mana wahine knowledges, particularly spiritual knowledges, was immense. These discourses portrayed Māori women as wanton, immoral, and undisciplined."
Long after the Christian missionaries had left their mark on Māori society, the government was still working to assimilate Māori storytelling. Johnston (1998) as cited by Simmonds (2011) "The 1907 Tohunga Suppression Act was perhaps one of the most aggressive assaults on wairua knowledges. At its very core, the Act was about defining what was considered important and legitimate knowledge. Māori spiritual knowledges were viewed by colonisers as superstitions or tales on the pathway to reality."
Eva Rickard in Mauri.
Where does cinema fit in with the ideas of mana wahine and Māori representation?
Pihama (2000) talking about Jane Campion's The Piano says “…for Māori people, The Piano offered little more than a 1990s expression of colonial ideologies and the reinforcement of limited representations of Māori people.” (p.1) In her essay Ebony and Ivory, Leonie Pihama goes on to say that “The invisibility of Māori in the quest for ownership of The Piano is itself a sign. Māori are not involved in the debate about who owns The Piano. Why? Because there is no benefit to Māori in claiming the film. Māori debate has been centred more firmly on the ways in which Māori are represented in the film and on the discourses that inform such representation. As Marcia Langton has argued, it is crucial that filmmakers are conscious of what actually informs their work and the ways in which they construct images and texts, in order to reveal the assumptions upon which the visual constructions rest: That is, we must identify how and by whom our work is informed.” (Pihama, 2000, p.3)
“It is important that Māori women take control of spaces where our stories can be told. This includes theoretical space. Our voices have been silenced for too long. The silencing of Māori women’s voices has meant the silencing of our theories, worldviews. It has meant that Māori women’s stories are able to then be defined as ‘myths’, and therefore some figment of the cultural imagination. The marginalisation of mana wahine has meant the Māori women are constantly having to try and ‘find’ ourselves in the images created by the colonisers.” (Pihama, 2001:240)
So how did an indigenous culture, which was traditionally seemingly equal and complimentary (tapu and noa -like ying and yang), end up taking on the characteristics of its colonisers and in particular the patriarchy of Christianity? What effect has this had on mana wahine? And how can we as storytellers create characters that defy these roles dictated to us from our colonial past?
Pihama (2000) talking about Jane Campion's The Piano says “…for Māori people, The Piano offered little more than a 1990s expression of colonial ideologies and the reinforcement of limited representations of Māori people.” (p.1) In her essay Ebony and Ivory, Leonie Pihama goes on to say that “The invisibility of Māori in the quest for ownership of The Piano is itself a sign. Māori are not involved in the debate about who owns The Piano. Why? Because there is no benefit to Māori in claiming the film. Māori debate has been centred more firmly on the ways in which Māori are represented in the film and on the discourses that inform such representation. As Marcia Langton has argued, it is crucial that filmmakers are conscious of what actually informs their work and the ways in which they construct images and texts, in order to reveal the assumptions upon which the visual constructions rest: That is, we must identify how and by whom our work is informed.” (Pihama, 2000, p.3)
“It is important that Māori women take control of spaces where our stories can be told. This includes theoretical space. Our voices have been silenced for too long. The silencing of Māori women’s voices has meant the silencing of our theories, worldviews. It has meant that Māori women’s stories are able to then be defined as ‘myths’, and therefore some figment of the cultural imagination. The marginalisation of mana wahine has meant the Māori women are constantly having to try and ‘find’ ourselves in the images created by the colonisers.” (Pihama, 2001:240)
So how did an indigenous culture, which was traditionally seemingly equal and complimentary (tapu and noa -like ying and yang), end up taking on the characteristics of its colonisers and in particular the patriarchy of Christianity? What effect has this had on mana wahine? And how can we as storytellers create characters that defy these roles dictated to us from our colonial past?
Storytelling and Mana Wahine on Screen
“Colonisation has not ceased; it continues through the capture of our images.” (Pihama & Smith, 1993, p.52)
This idea of the ramifications of colonisation, patriarchy and the effects of Christianity on Māori culture, and the representation depicted on screen, I believe helps me to examine and begin to understand what the representation is of Māori women in our cinema and ask the question: Is this who we really are? Or, are these stereotypes that challenge us (the audience) to think about our unique culture and the problems and barriers we still face?
Are our filmmakers using these representations as a way of pointing out our faults, or are they simply being lazy storytellers? Of course there will always be multiple layers to any society. New Zealand's population is as diverse as it has ever been and continues to change and morph into something new and multi-cultural. But at our roots, laid down on the foundations are stories of our past - stories about Papa-tū-a-nuku and Rangi-nui; Maui fishing up the North Island and stories of great men and women and how the world came to be.
Somewhere along the line, Māori myths were manipulated into Christian Ideals; the stories of strong and spirited men and women became tales of adventurous heroes and seductive women who were punished for their sins and fierce creatures of the underworld (hell?).
It is this representation of Māori women that I am interested in and I draw parallels with these Christianised myths and the tales woven on screen -at least in the early days of our cinema. But it is the films of the last 30 years that interest me -as our cinema has grown out of its infancy -has our storytelling matured? Are we more comfortable confronting social issues embedded in our society? What part does our collective past play? What is the role of women and in particular Māori women in these stories?
These are questions that I've been asking myself. Who are we? Where do we come from? Where do we go from here?
For me this question feels natural to ask, but complicated to answer.
This idea of the ramifications of colonisation, patriarchy and the effects of Christianity on Māori culture, and the representation depicted on screen, I believe helps me to examine and begin to understand what the representation is of Māori women in our cinema and ask the question: Is this who we really are? Or, are these stereotypes that challenge us (the audience) to think about our unique culture and the problems and barriers we still face?
Are our filmmakers using these representations as a way of pointing out our faults, or are they simply being lazy storytellers? Of course there will always be multiple layers to any society. New Zealand's population is as diverse as it has ever been and continues to change and morph into something new and multi-cultural. But at our roots, laid down on the foundations are stories of our past - stories about Papa-tū-a-nuku and Rangi-nui; Maui fishing up the North Island and stories of great men and women and how the world came to be.
Somewhere along the line, Māori myths were manipulated into Christian Ideals; the stories of strong and spirited men and women became tales of adventurous heroes and seductive women who were punished for their sins and fierce creatures of the underworld (hell?).
It is this representation of Māori women that I am interested in and I draw parallels with these Christianised myths and the tales woven on screen -at least in the early days of our cinema. But it is the films of the last 30 years that interest me -as our cinema has grown out of its infancy -has our storytelling matured? Are we more comfortable confronting social issues embedded in our society? What part does our collective past play? What is the role of women and in particular Māori women in these stories?
These are questions that I've been asking myself. Who are we? Where do we come from? Where do we go from here?
For me this question feels natural to ask, but complicated to answer.
Once Were Warriors: wahine toa
Rena Owen in Once Were Warriors.
Once Were Warriors (Tamahori, 1994) tells the story of the Heke family: living in South Auckland, they are an urban Maori family downtrodden and full of dysfunction. The root of this dysfunction is patriarch Jake 'The Muss' Heke (Temuera Morrison) - unemployed booze drinking, fist swinging man-of-the-house. Jake's wife Beth (Rena Owen) and their teenage daughter Grace (Mamaengaroa Kerr-Bell) are the heart and soul of the film. Although the film predominantly follows Beth's relationship with Jake, the sub-plot of Grace weaves its way along side giving the film its heart and Beth reason to finally leave Jake.
Rena Owen and Mamaengaroa Kerr-Bell in Once Were Warriors.
Beth Heke embodies two conflicting ideas about Māori women: that of a woman who is subservient to her husband and children; a role defined by even herself -admitting to knowing her place in life when her friend sees her beaten face swollen and bruised. All the while grating against her inner spirit and intuitive sense of mana wahine. Unlike her husband, Beth is proud of who she is and where she comes from. It is this juxtaposition that makes Beth such a fascinating character.
River Queen and the hybrid Māori
Samantha Morton in River Queen.
Some what controversially I have chosen Sarah (Samantha Morton) in River Queen (Ward, 2005). An Irish immigrant who lives on the Whanganui river with her half Māori son. They live a life wedged in between two worlds -that of the local Iwi and the Colonial army who are preparing for battle against chief Te Pai Ko. When her son is taken by his grandfather, Sarah ventures up river to find him. Skilled as a surgeon, she is captured and taken to help cure the ill chief Te Pai Ko. When she succeeds, she earns a new level of respect that previously as a pakeha woman she had not had. Later, Sarah reunited with her son, escapes from the ensuing battle between the tribe and the Colonial army; her son Boy tattoos a moko on her chin to help her blend in with the other Māori women.
I would argue that Sarah like that of Banes (Harvey Keitel) in The Piano is a kind of hyrbrid character -European in descent but identifies and assimilates themselves with Māori. I include her, because, I believe, that despite Sarah's heritage, and the fact she sits on the edge of both cultures, she does in fact embody the values and integrity of Mana Wahine.
I would argue that Sarah like that of Banes (Harvey Keitel) in The Piano is a kind of hyrbrid character -European in descent but identifies and assimilates themselves with Māori. I include her, because, I believe, that despite Sarah's heritage, and the fact she sits on the edge of both cultures, she does in fact embody the values and integrity of Mana Wahine.
Utu and the seductive Māori maiden
Tania Bristowe in Utu.
Of these four films only Utu (Murphy, 1983) has no main Mana Wahine character. Kura (Tania Bristowe) is like a femme fatale -the temptress flits between her attentions for Lt. Scott and his scout Henare. When Henare shows signs of being conflicted about his allegiances she dares him with the line "Are you chasing me or not?" -a reminder that he is fighting for the enemy. Later after they've slept together she burns Henare's Colonial uniform cap while he sleeps. Te Wheke's people then kill Henare and injure Lt. Scott. Kura as a character is there to serve the men and act as a temptress to all sides. She is as flat and storybook like as any run of the mill femme fatale character and I include her in this list not because she embodies a mana wahine spirit, but as a challenge to be weary of the 'seductive Māori maiden' that in our early cinema we relied on so much.
The Pretend Māori in The Seekers
Poster for The Seekers.
Other examples of the seductive Māori maiden is Moana (Laya Raki) in The Seekers (Annakin, 1954). A seductress to Jack Hawkins' expeditioner, with her interesting modern dance spin on traditional Māori song and dance and sneaking around behind her husband's back. Of course eventually she pays with her life. What I find interesting more than her so-bad-it's-funny-performance, is the casting choices made. Laya Raki is German and granted she does look exotic, but I don't think there's anything about her that looks Māori. However this publicist for Pinewood at the time disagrees saying in The Australian Women’s Weekly, 03 February 1954:
"Laya has a strong Polynesian cast of feature. We had tested several Maori girls, some of them beautiful, but somehow the cameras didn't take to them. You know how people photograph differently from the way they really look... Well, when we stumbled across Laya Raki and tested her, she photographed ideally for the part. She looks more like a Maori than a Maori."
Māori women evidently were not good enough at the time to play Māori women, and yet the entire male cast of the Māori tribe in The Seekers were played by Māori.
"Laya has a strong Polynesian cast of feature. We had tested several Maori girls, some of them beautiful, but somehow the cameras didn't take to them. You know how people photograph differently from the way they really look... Well, when we stumbled across Laya Raki and tested her, she photographed ideally for the part. She looks more like a Maori than a Maori."
Māori women evidently were not good enough at the time to play Māori women, and yet the entire male cast of the Māori tribe in The Seekers were played by Māori.
Whale Rider: the girl who defied her grandfather because she was not born a boy
Keisha Castle-Hughes and Rawiri Paratene in Whale Rider.
Paikea (Keisha Castle-Hughes) in Whale Rider (Caro, 2002) represents the perceived patriarchy in Māori culture and what one young girl is prepared to do to prove to her grandfather that she is the next leader of their family. What's interesting about Whale Rider is the ingrained sense of patriarchy and subservient role models Paikea has around her. No one challenges Koro except Paikea and she does it out of an unbreakable love and admiration. Whale Rider doesn't explore why patriarchy exists in Maori culture, but it does try to break the mould by saying a girl can lead her family.
Conclusion
Through the process of watching and thinking about these films I've come to some understanding that the representation of Māori women is more important than I'd realised. The continued patriarchy Māori culture faces is a result of our colonised past and the adoption of Christianity. The affects on mana wahine are deeply entrenched and have had an immense effect on not only our society but the myths we circulate in our cinema.
I have also learnt that although there have been some shockingly sexist and racist films made in the past, we have made and continue to make films with characters that define Mana Wahine. Strong women who break the mould they've been given and defy the odds stacked up against them.
To fully break free as storytellers -for us and for the next generation, we need to keep pushing those boundaries, but we also need to look back and understand where we've come from.
As Kathie Irwin wisely said: "We need to actively honour, to celebrate the contributions, and affirm the mana of Māori women: those tupuna wahine who have gone before us; those wahine toa who give strength to our culture and people today; and those kotiro and mokopuna who are being born now, and who will be born in the future to fulfil our dreams." (1992)
I have also learnt that although there have been some shockingly sexist and racist films made in the past, we have made and continue to make films with characters that define Mana Wahine. Strong women who break the mould they've been given and defy the odds stacked up against them.
To fully break free as storytellers -for us and for the next generation, we need to keep pushing those boundaries, but we also need to look back and understand where we've come from.
As Kathie Irwin wisely said: "We need to actively honour, to celebrate the contributions, and affirm the mana of Māori women: those tupuna wahine who have gone before us; those wahine toa who give strength to our culture and people today; and those kotiro and mokopuna who are being born now, and who will be born in the future to fulfil our dreams." (1992)
Glossary
Atua ancestor with continuing influence, god, demon, supernatural being, deity, ghost, object of superstitious regard
Kaupapa level surface, floor, stage, platform, layer, topic, policy, matter for discussion, plan, scheme, proposal, agenda, subject
Kotiro girl, daughter
Mana authority, prestige, integrity, charisma, strength and spiritual power
Māori native, indigenous, belonging to Aotearoa/New Zealand, freely, without restraint, without ceremony, clear, intelligible
Mokopuna grandchild
Noa be free from the extensions of tapu, ordinary, unrestricted
Papa-tū-a-nuku Earth mother
Rangi-nui Sky father
Tangata local people, hosts, indigenous people of the land
Tapu sacred, prohibited, restricted, set apart, forbidden, under atua protection
Tupuna wahine female ancestor, grandmother, great-grandmother
Wahine woman/women, female, lady, wife
Wairua spirit, soul
Whakapapa genealogy, genealogical table, lineage, descent
Whanau extended family, family group
Whare tangata womb
Whenua country, land, nation, state
Kaupapa level surface, floor, stage, platform, layer, topic, policy, matter for discussion, plan, scheme, proposal, agenda, subject
Kotiro girl, daughter
Mana authority, prestige, integrity, charisma, strength and spiritual power
Māori native, indigenous, belonging to Aotearoa/New Zealand, freely, without restraint, without ceremony, clear, intelligible
Mokopuna grandchild
Noa be free from the extensions of tapu, ordinary, unrestricted
Papa-tū-a-nuku Earth mother
Rangi-nui Sky father
Tangata local people, hosts, indigenous people of the land
Tapu sacred, prohibited, restricted, set apart, forbidden, under atua protection
Tupuna wahine female ancestor, grandmother, great-grandmother
Wahine woman/women, female, lady, wife
Wairua spirit, soul
Whakapapa genealogy, genealogical table, lineage, descent
Whanau extended family, family group
Whare tangata womb
Whenua country, land, nation, state
Notes
Title images 1. and 2. by Robyn Kahukiwa
*There were several films that unfortunately I had trouble finding a copy of/copies no longer existed or I simply didn't have the time to review. These films, which I regret are missing from my filmography list include:
Hinemoa (Méliès, 1913), Hinemoa (Tarr, 1914), Rewi's Last Stand (Hayward, 1925), Mauri (Mita, 1988), Ruby and Rata (Preston, 1990).
*There were several films that unfortunately I had trouble finding a copy of/copies no longer existed or I simply didn't have the time to review. These films, which I regret are missing from my filmography list include:
Hinemoa (Méliès, 1913), Hinemoa (Tarr, 1914), Rewi's Last Stand (Hayward, 1925), Mauri (Mita, 1988), Ruby and Rata (Preston, 1990).